The majority of past professional development has only been marginally successful. Conventional approaches, such as lectures, workshops, and demos, show little evidence of transfer to practice (Abadiano & Turner, 2004). In-service workshops have been the most prevalent form of professional development offered, and these workshops often focus on state science standards, science content, and/or use of instructional materials. It has been shown on numerous occasions that school or district mandated PD is usually generic and does not tend to the needs of teachers, particularly in science. Nor does it attend to the idea of cohesive learning within a school or district. Thus it remains ineffective. The application of the PD must be contextual for the teachers.

Given the lack of rigorous studies of the impact of PD on student learning outcomes, existing analyses do not link PD characteristics and measures of student achievement. In the few PDs that included science, most of these studies involved workshops or summer institutes and showed a positive relationship between PD and improvements in student learning. In large part, these PD focused on research-based instructional practices (including the involvement of outside experts), engaged teachers in active learning experiences, and provided opportunities to adapt practices to their unique classroom situation.

WIDE VARIATION IN PD

Although many studies and reviews come to the same conclusions – PD varies widely, and research supporting PD is often inconsistent and contradictory (Guskey, 2002; Luft, Bang, & Hewson, 2016) – there are several recurring characteristics of effective PD, effective referring to improving student learning outcomes. Effective teacher professional development is content-based, incorporates active learning opportunities (teachers are not passive participants), and supports collaboration. These programs use models of effective practice and provide coaching and external support, offer feedback and reflection, and are of a sustained duration, incorporating adequate time to learn, practice, implement, and reflect on new strategies that facilitate change in teachers’ practice ((Darling-Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner, 2017). Most successful programs engage researchers to work closely with school districts and utilize student outcome data that demonstrate that a new practice works (or doesn’t work). Effective PD also maintains alignment with district policies and practices (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015).

Despite the wide variation in PD characteristics, determinations of PD “effectiveness” most often refer to “enhancement of teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge (the many ways students learn)” as the key feature of PD (Guskey, 2002). While there is no common set of activities/designs/best practices linked to any effect on student learning outcomes, effective PD comes from careful adaptation of a variety of practices in specific content, process, and contextual elements. Many reports conclude there is a stronger effect on student achievement when PD focuses on both content and pedagogy. Others find improved student learning outcomes when the PD focuses on teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge as well as students’ and teachers’ content knowledge. It is also important for teachers to elicit and use students’ preconceptions about science concepts in their teaching, though few PD opportunities address students’ misconceptions/preconceptions in class.

Dosage and duration

While there is not a magic dosage or duration that is deemed “effective,” the type of activity may determine an appropriate amount of time and duration. For example, non-traditional or ”reform” activities, such as mentoring, coaching, or observation, tend to produce better outcomes mainly because they are of longer duration, while traditional activities such as a workshop or conference may be useful, even at a short duration (Bayer, 2014; Penuel, Fishman, Ryoko, & Gallagher, 2007; Dunst, Bruder, & Hamby, 2015). Overall, more time - 30+ contact hours - if well-organized, and focused on both SMK and PCK, is effective; however, additional time makes no difference if the PD itself lacks quality. Professional development must be of sufficient duration and intensity to provide repeated opportunities for educators to become proficient in the use of content knowledge and practice gained in the PD (Dunst et al., 2015). Positive improvements in student learning were seen where there were significant amounts of structured and sustained follow-up after the main PD event (Guskey & Yoon, 2009).

As advocated by Learning Forward - The Professional Learning Association - and others, professional development contributes to increased student learning and must continue to build on previous professional development. Effective PD addresses learning outcomes and performance expectations designated by schools for students and teachers and increases results for both.

Alternative approaches

An alternative approach to PD involves a change in classroom practices, which leads to changes in student learning outcomes, in turn instigating changes in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes (Guskey, 2002). The PD ultimately “works” because teachers see the practices in action and realize that they work in their particular classrooms with their students. According to Nicole Gillespie of the Knowles Teaching Institute, for students in mathematics and science to develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, teachers of those students need high-quality, sustained professional development (Knowles Teacher Initiative, 2018). The change brought about by professional development is not instantaneous, but gradual and difficult, requiring adjustment, feedback and encouragement, support, and collaboration.

Professional collaboration, school-centered PD, time and opportunities for well-thought out, structured collaboration and feedback, structured and supported peer coaching, and clear administrative support in an environment of trust are the hallmarks of useful and impactful professional learning (Abadiano & Turner, 2004; National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015). These are important keys to continued teacher growth beyond the first few years of teaching. “One size PD” does not fit all, and time must be allotted for the careful planning and implementation of PD, with teachers as collaborators in the process.