Listed below are some student physical science (physics) misconceptions, grouped under the four main standards of the NGSS for grades 9–12 physical sciences. The list is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather a summary of some of the more common prior ideas we identified from our analysis of the student response patterns to the items on all of our field tests, which totaled more than 500 items.

Standard HS-PS2: Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

• Students think of force as a property of a single object instead of as a feature of interaction between two objects. Students think that force is something inherent within an object (or that can become part of an object once it is applied, i.e. a push or pull) that keeps it going; moving objects will stop when the force of motion in them eventually runs out.
• Students generally think there cannot be a force without motion, and the force must be acting in the direction of the motion. No motion means no force is acting, and any motion is proportional to the acting force. Forces in opposite directions cancel, no matter what the magnitude.
• Students do not always understand the meaning behind the math, where an equation serves as a "guide to thinking" and not merely a "plug-and-chug recipe for algebraic problem-solving”.
• Students have difficulty with the concept that forces are invisible and think that objects must be in contact for a force to have an effect on the object.
• Objects are either at rest or in motion, where “rest” is regarded as a natural state with no forces acting on an object. An object experiencing a balance of forces is seen as “at rest”.
• Only animate objects can exert a force – thus, if an object is at rest on a table, there are no forces acting on it. Passive objects cannot exert a force.
• Objects fall naturally with no forces involved; barriers stop things falling. Falling objects stay at the same speed as they fall. When dropped in a vacuum, heavier objects will reach the ground first.
• Students often confuse speed, acceleration and velocity, as well as distance–time and speed–time graphs.
• Acceleration can only occur in the same direction as an object is moving. An object cannot have horizontal motion if there are only vertical forces acting on it.
• Students think the speed of an object will increase and then level off at the higher speed when a force acts on an object in the direction of its current motion. Conversely, when a force acts on a moving object to slow it down, the object will slow down for a while and then move at a lower constant speed.
• The motion of an object changes while a new force is being applied (combining with whatever force was acting on it as it was moving), and then goes back to its original motion when that new force ceases. A force “dies out” or “builds up” to account for an object’s speed.
• Students often do not recognize friction as a force, and think friction only occurs between solid objects.
• Students have difficulties in qualitatively interpreting the basic principles related to energy and momentum and in applying them in physical situations. If soft objects collide with each other, momentum does not conserve. For momentum to be conserved, objects must collide elastically. Many students have difficulty understanding the concepts of momentum, conservation of momentum, and confuse momentum and impulse.
• Students have difficulty comprehending what gravity is, how it acts, and where it acts, as well as its interactions and effects on and between objects and fields. Students often do not think there is any gravity in space, and that gravity only relates to Earth.

Standard HS-PS 3: Energy

• Energy is thought of as a force, or a causal agent that is stored in certain objects. Energy is an “ingredient” of objects and lies dormant within the object until something triggers it. Energy is assumed to arise all of a sudden as a result of some combination of “ingredients” rather than being thought of as continuous.
• Students’ descriptions of energy are often very anthropomorphic and anthropocentric; energy is mainly associated with human beings; nonliving things are thought not to need energy.
• There is the idea of a “depository” model of energy: some objects are thought of as having energy and being rechargeable, some objects needing energy and using what they get, some objects are neutral. Students think of energy as fuel or a fuel (often instead of fuel “containing” energy or “as a source of” energy).
• Energy is movement of any kind (i.e. the energy is the movement), and movement requires energy. Energy is the overt, outward display of activity (and is the sole means of identifying energy). An object has energy within it that is used up as the object moves.
• Students think of a battery as a “giver” of electricity (as a store of electricity or energy) and is a constant current source, creating energy out of nothing. They are uncertain of the role of a battery. When an electrochemical cell no longer works, it is out of charge and must be recharged before it can be used again.
• Most students do not have a clear understanding of the underlying mechanisms of electric circuit phenomena. Some may think electricity is used up by a circuit. Students often think of current as energy and assume electrical energy flows inside metal wires.
• Students lack knowledge about the individual forms of energy. One form of energy cannot be transformed into another form of energy (e.g. chemical energy cannot be converted to kinetic energy). Convection is the most difficult energy transfer concept for students.
• Students broadly have difficulty with the concepts of conservation of energy. Energy is not conserved, it is seen as a short-lived product that is generated, is active, and then fades and disappears. Things go until energy is used up or fuel is consumed; things use up energy. Students think that energy can be created or destroyed.
• Energy is thought to flow out of one thing and into another. Energy is not transferred from one object to another unless those objects are in direct contact with each other.
• In terms of conduction, students often think that when a cold and a warm object are placed in contact with each other, the warm object gets colder and the cold object gets warmer because “coldness” is transferred from one object to the other (particularly involving frozen objects).
• Thermal energy will continue to be transferred by conduction even after objects in contact with each other reach the same temperature; the temperature of the object getting warmer will continue to increase and the temperature of the object getting cooler will continue to decrease.
• Only objects that are warm or hot have thermal energy and can transfer thermal energy. Heat and temperature are the same thing.
• Earth gets heat from the Sun (rather than light from the Sun reaches Earth and is absorbed, increasing the energy in an object causing the object to heat up).
• Students have difficulty understanding the concept of gravitational potential energy.
• Students have a variety of incorrect ideas regarding “motion energy”, lacking an understanding of the relationship of “motion energy” to an objects’ size, mass, speed, material make-up, shape, or direction of travel. Students claim that PE and KE cancel out.
• Many students have difficulty distinguishing between a system and its surroundings and do not consider the interactions between a system and its surroundings. Students assume that the energy of any system is always constant (since “energy is always conserved”), regardless if there is external work done on the system (i.e. block and spring).
• Students tend to associate energy with objects (batteries and fuels) rather than abstract processes and constructs (heat and light).
• “Energy” and “force” are commonly confused by students and thus used interchangeably. Students have difficulty thinking about forces across fields.

Selected References for Grades 9–12 Physical Science (Physics) Misconceptions

AAAS Project 2061 Science Assessment Misconception References (Retrieved from http://assessment.aaas.org/misconceptions/FMM114/254).

AAAS Project 2061 Science Assessment Misconception References (Retrieved from http://assessment.aaas.org/topics/EG#/,tabs-216/2,tabs-217/2,tabs-218/2,tabs-219/2,tabs-215/2).

(AAPT) Helping Students Learn Physics Better: A Guide to Enhancing Conceptual Understanding. (Retrieved from http://sosaapt.weebly.com/uploads/5/4/4/2/5442334/physics_misconceptions_phys_udallas_edu.pdf).

Andal, J. (2014) 9 Common Misconceptions About Physics. (Retrieved from https://futurism.com/9-common-misconceptions-physics/).

Atkin, N.. Neil Atkin Teaching Forces – Misconceptions and how to overcome them. (Retrieved from http://neilatkin.com/2015/07/27/teaching-forces-misconceptions-and-how-to-overcome-them/).

Atlantic Health Solutions. (n.d.). 7 Medical Imaging Myths and Misconceptions. (Retrieved from http://www.myatlantichealthsolutions.com/radiology-diagnostic-imaging-resources-for-patients/2016/7/15/7-medical-imaging-myths-and-misconceptions).

Bar, V., Zinn, B. & Rubin, E.. (1997) Children's Ideas About Action at a Distance. International Journal of Science Education, 19(10), 1137-1157. (Retrieved from http://www-tandfonline-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/doi/abs/10.1080/0950069970191003).

Brain, M. (2000). “How CDs Work”. HowStuffWorks.com. Brainstuff Podcast: (Retrieved from http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cd.htm).

Brain, M., Tyson, J. and Layton, J. (2000) "How Cell Phones Work". HowStuffWorks.com. (Retrieved from http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/cell-phone.htm).

Buck, J., Wage, K., Hjalmarson, M., & Nelson, J. (2007). Comparing student understanding of signals and systems using a concept inventory, a traditional exam and interviews. Conference Paper in Proceedings - Frontiers in Education Conference, November 2007, pp. S1G1-S1G6. (Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/224299960_Comparing_student_understanding_of_signals_and_systems_using_a_concept_inventory_a_traditional_exam_and_interviews).

Clement, J. (1982). Students’ Preconceptions in Introductory Mechanics. American Journal of Physics, 50(1), 66-71. (Retrieved from http://people.umass.edu/ ~clement/pdf/students_preconceptions_in_introductory_mechanics.pdf).

Clement, J. (1987). Overcoming Students' Misconceptions in Physics: The role of anchoring intuitions and analogical validity. In J. Novak (Ed.). Proceedings of the second international seminar misconceptions and educational strategies in science and mathematics. (Vol. III, pp. 84-96). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University (as cited in O’Rourke, K. (n.d.) Energy Unit. Energy, energy everywhere, but not a drop to spare. (Retrieved from http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~kennethp/pedagogy.pdf).

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CPALMS. Visualizing the Universal Law of Gravity. (Retrieved from http://www.cpalms.org/Public/PreviewResourceLesson/Preview/152051).

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Doménech-Carbó, A., Gimeno-Adelantado, J., and Bosch-Reig, F. (2009). Misconceptions and metaconceptions in instrumental analysis. Acta Scientiae 11(1), 73 – 87. (Retrieved from http://www.periodicos.ulbra.br/index.php/acta/article/viewFile/56/50).

Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P., and Wood-Robinson, V. (1994). Making Sense of Secondary Science: Research into Children’s Ideas. New York, New York: Routledge.

Driver, R., and Warrington, L. (1985). Students' use of the principle of energy conservation in problem situations. Physics Education, 20 (4) , 171-176. https://doi.org/10.1088/0031-9120/20/4/308 (Retrieved from http://iopscience.iop.org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/article/10.1088/0031-9120/20/4/308/pdf).

Energy in the Polar Environment: Common Misconceptions about Light, Heat, and the Sun. (2008). (Retrieved from http://beyondpenguins.ehe.osu.edu/issue/energy-and-the-polar-environment/common-misconceptions-about-light-heat-and-the-sun).

Goff, J.E.. (2004). Turning Around Newton’s Second Law. The Science Education Review, 3(3), 97-102. (Retrieved April 11, 2017 from http://goff-j.web.lynchburg.edu/Goff_SER_08_04.pdf).

Goldring, H., & Osborne, J. (1994). Students difficulties with energy and related concepts. Physics Education, 29(1), 26-32. doi:10.1088/0031-9120/29/1/006. (Retrieved from http://iopscience.iop.org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/article/10.1088/0031-9120/29/1/006/pdf).

Gül, A., & Kocakülah, M. S. (2008). Grade 10 students' misconceptions about impulse and momentum. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 5(2), 47-59. (Retrieved April 10, 2017 from http://search.proquest.com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/docview/1658765681?accountid=11311).

Guri-Rosenblit, S. (2009) Distance Education in the Digital Age: Common Misconceptions and Challenging Tasks. Journal of Distance Education 23(2), 105-122. (Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ851907.pdf).

Haven, A. and Chatham Marconi Maritime Center, (2015). (Retrieved from https://capecodstemnetwork.org/images/articles_resources/AnalogWorldDigitalWorld.pdf).

Henderson, T. (n.d.). Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. The Physics Classroom, Circular Motion and Satellite Motion - Lesson 3 - Universal Gravitation. (Retrieved from http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circles/Lesson-3/Newton-s-Law-of-Universal-Gravitation).

Henderson, T. (n.d.). Coulomb’s Law. The Physics Classroom, Static Electricity - Lesson 3 – Electric Force. (Retrieved from http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Class/estatics/u8l3b.cfm).

Henderson, T. (n.d.). The Physics Classroom, Newton’s Laws. (Retrieved from http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/Lesson-3/The-Big-Misconception).

Henderson, T. (n.d.). The Physics Classroom – Waves - Complete Toolkit. (Retrieved from http://www.physicsclassroom.com/Teacher-Toolkits/Wave-Behavior-Toollkit/Wave-Behavior-Complete-ToolKit).

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Herrmann-Abell, C. F., & DeBoer, G. E. (2011, March). Investigating Students’ Understanding of Energy Transformation, Energy Transfer, and Conservation of Energy Using Standards-Based Assessment Items . Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Annual Conference, Orlando, FL. (Retrieved from http://www.project2061.org/publications/2061connections/2011/media/herrmann-abell_narst_2011.pdf).

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The test in this section contains items related to 24 of the grades 9–12 Disciplinary Core Ideas (DCIs) in physical sciences (physics) from the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS). Listed below are the DCIs as stated in the NGSS.

HS-PS2.A.i:

“Newton’s second law accurately predicts changes in the motion of macroscopic objects.”

HS-PS2.A.ii:

“Momentum is defined for a particular frame of reference; it is the mass times the velocity of the object.”

HS-PS2.A.iii:

“If a system interacts with objects outside itself, the total momentum of the system can change; however, any such change is balanced by changes in the momentum of objects outside the system.”

HS-PS2.B.i:

“Newton’s law of universal gravitation and Coulomb’s law provide the mathematical models to describe and predict the effects of gravitational and electrostatic forces between distant objects.”

HS-PS2.B.ii:

“Forces at a distance are explained by fields (gravitational, electric, and magnetic) permeating space that can transfer energy through space. Magnets or electric currents cause magnetic fields; electric charges or changing magnetic fields cause electric fields.”

HS-PS2.B.iii:

“Attraction and repulsion between electric charges at the atomic scale explain the structure, properties, and transformations of matter, as well as the contact forces between material objects.”

HS-PS3.A.i:

“Electrical energy” may mean energy stored in a battery or energy transmitted by electric currents.”

HS-PS3.A.ii:

“Energy is a quantitative property of a system that depends on the motion and interactions of matter and radiation within that system. That there is a single quantity called energy is due to the fact that a system’s total energy is conserved, even as, within the system, energy is continually transferred from one object to another and between its various possible forms.”

HS-PS3.A.iii:

“At the macroscopic scale, energy manifests itself in multiple ways, such as in motion, sound, light, and thermal energy.”

HS-PS3.A.iv:

“These relationships are better understood at the microscopic scale, at which all of the different manifestations of energy can be modeled as a combination of energy associated with the motion of particles and energy associated with the configuration (relative position of the particles). In some cases the relative position energy can be thought of as stored in fields (which mediate interactions between particles). This last concept includes radiation, a phenomenon in which energy stored in fields moves across space.”

HS-PS3.B.i:

“Conservation of energy means that the total change of energy in any system is always equal to the total energy transferred into or out of the system.”

HS-PS3.B.ii:

“Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be transported from one place to another and transferred between systems.”

HS-PS3.B.iii:

“Mathematical expressions, which quantify how the stored energy in a system depends on its configuration (e.g. relative positions of charged particles, compression of a spring) and how kinetic energy depends on mass and speed, allow the concept of conservation of energy to be used to predict and describe system behavior.”

HS-PS3.B.iv:

“The availability of energy limits what can occur in any system.”

HS-PS3.B.v:

“Uncontrolled systems always evolve toward more stable states—that is, toward more uniform energy distribution (e.g., water flows downhill, objects hotter than their surrounding environment cool down).”

HS-PS3.C.i:

“When two objects interacting through a field change relative position, the energy stored in the field is changed.”

HS-PS3.D.i:

“Although energy cannot be destroyed, it can be converted to less useful forms—for example, to thermal energy in the surrounding environment.” (Energy in Chemical Processes is covered in Chemistry DCIs [Matter and Its Interactions] following PS1.C.i; it is not re-covered in Physics DCIs)

HS-PS3.D.ii:

“Solar cells are human-made devices that likewise capture the sun’s energy and produce electrical energy.”

HS-PS4.A.i:

“The wavelength and frequency of a wave are related to one another by the speed of travel of the wave, which depends on the type of wave and the medium through which it is passing.”

HS-PS4.A.ii:

“Information can be digitized (e.g., a picture stored as the values of an array of pixels); in this form, it can be stored reliably in computer memory and sent over long distances as a series of wave pulses.”

HS-PS4.A.iii:

“[From the 3–5 grade band endpoints] Waves can add or cancel one another as they cross, depending on their relative phase (i.e., relative position of peaks and troughs of the waves), but they emerge unaffected by each other. (Boundary: The discussion at this grade level is qualitative only; it can be based on the fact that two different sounds can pass a location in different directions without getting mixed up.)”

HS-PS4.B.i:

“Electromagnetic radiation (e.g., radio, microwaves, light) can be modeled as a wave of changing electric and magnetic fields or as particles called photons. The wave model is useful for explaining many features of electromagnetic radiation, and the particle model explains other features.”

HS-PS4.B.ii:

“When light or longer wavelength electromagnetic radiation is absorbed in matter, it is generally converted into thermal energy (heat). Shorter wavelength electromagnetic radiation (ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) can ionize atoms and cause damage to living cells.”

HS-PS4.B.iii:

“Photoelectric materials emit electrons when they absorb light of a high-enough frequency.”

HS-PS4.C.i:

“Multiple technologies based on the understanding of waves and their interactions with matter are part of everyday experiences in the modern world (e.g., medical imaging, communications, scanners) and in scientific research. They are essential tools for producing, transmitting, and capturing signals and for storing and interpreting the information contained in them.”