The goal of professional development is to positively affect student learning (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015), and the effectiveness of the PD toward that end depends on how well it is planned (Guskey, 2014). For decades, science educators have been offered generic training sessions that are disconnected from their specific and individual needs (Royce, 2010). Districts and schools often continue to view teachers’ professional development as independent, disconnected workshops, rather than interconnected, sequential learning experiences (Loucks-Horsley, Stiles, Mundry, Love, & Hewson, 2010).

To better meet the needs of science educators, PD providers should seek out effective PD models, with distinct benchmarks and goals, when planning professional development (Royce, 2010), as well as have a basic understanding of research findings that are useful in planning and delivering PD (Loucks-Horsely et al., 2010). Any effective professional development activity should match existing teacher and school needs, involve teachers in the design and planning of professional development activities, provide high-quality instructors and active participation opportunities, and contain a long-term engagement (Bayer, 2014).

CORE FEATURES

Through numerous reviews of PD programs, three core features emerge that could enhance teacher learning and improve classroom practice:

• 1. focus on subject matter knowledge
• 2. opportunities for active learning (e.g., observing other teachers or being observed)
• 3. coherence with teachers’ other PD experiences as well as state and district standards (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001)

These features, along with the format of the activity (e.g., workshop vs. study group), a long duration of the activity, and collective participation of teachers from the same school, grade, or subject all help to set a positive context for a PD activity to take place (Garet et al., 2001). The last component is particularly important for elementary school teachers, who report they are less likely to attend a national, state, or regional science teacher meeting and have fewer opportunities to work with other science teachers (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2015).

Both subject matter knowledge (SMK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) as part of the PD have been shown to have significant positive effects on student learning (Royce, 2010), yet, historically, few professional development programs have focused on the topic-specific nature of teachers’ knowledge (Zhang, Parker, Koehler, & Eberhardt, 2015). A statewide study in California showed that only one third of elementary school teachers of science felt prepared to teach the subject (Noam & Shah, 2013). When crafting a professional development program, organizers first need to understand teachers’ topic-specific needs for improvement, particularly in the area of inquiry teaching (Zhang et al., 2015), which has been often identified by teachers as a skill in need of improvement.

PCK is believed to have the greatest impact on teacher knowledge (Gess-Newsome, 1999) and should be an important part of teacher PD (van Driel & Berry, 2012). PCK includes general knowledge of teaching and learning, such as learning theories, instructional principles, and classroom management (Shulman, 1986; Zhang et al., 2015). Most of the PD models that have been looked at agree that PCK involves:

• 1. knowledge of representations and instructional strategies for teaching specific science topics;
• 2. knowledge of students, including students’ prior knowledge, misconceptions, and ways to connect science to students’ real-world experience;
• 3. knowledge of the science curriculum for particular grade levels and science topics; and
• 4. knowledge of assessment, including what to assess and how to assess (Lee & Luft, 2008).

Dosage, collaboration, and support

As mentioned in the “What Works” section of this website, 30+ hours of well-organized PD is deemed effective to enhance teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge (Guskey, 2002). While most PD opportunities are much shorter than that, we know from research that a substantial amount of time (approximately 50+ hours of PD) is needed before teachers make significant changes in their practices (Loucks-Horsely et al., 2010). Sustained and intensive PD is more likely to have an impact in the classroom on student learning outcomes than shorter PD (Penuel, Fishman, Yamaguchi, & Gallagher, 2007; Royce, C., 2010). When planning and conducting in-service professional development, attention should be focused on the appropriate dose of teacher training. The PD should include distributed teacher learning opportunities with enough time in between to reflect on and internalize knowledge and skill acquisition and to receive ongoing supports to reinforce teacher mastery (Dunst, Bruder, & Hamby, 2015).

Programs are more likely to be successful on a long-term basis if teachers from the same school, grade, or subject participate and collaborate in intensive, sustained, and on-going learning. This allows them to focus on content and curriculum connected to their daily practice and own learning goals (Zhang et al., 2015; Penuel et al., 2007) and to align curriculum and practice with local, state, and national standards. It also helps them to focus on content that can be integrated into the daily life of a school, providing coherence to the professional learning experience. Teachers will have more opportunities for collaboration and team support through peer observations, study groups, etc., to continue implementing effective change into their teaching and learning strategies. A crucial aspect of planning and going forward with any PD is organizational support, including a supportive principal. Support from school and district administrations--to secure time, funding, necessary technology, and instructional materials as part of a strong professional environment-- is key to continued teacher growth beyond the first few years of teaching.

Strategies for Planning PD (in-person or online)

Educators’ time in PD must be well-organized and carefully structured (Guskey, 1986). Programs must have purpose, cohesiveness, and direction, with clear goals for participants to achieve in terms of better educator practice and improved student learning. A useful way to approach this is by planning backward from the desired outcome to what it will take to get there (Guskey, 2014).

A common criticism of PD is that ‘‘one of the most serious problems concerning professional development is the fact that schools often plan general workshops with general leaders - all seemingly having little to do with specific curriculum components or day-to-day teaching” (Yager, 2005). First and foremost, engage the teachers and teacher leaders in planning professional development. An integral part of the process is directing attention to the domain and discipline specificity of teacher learning and development. Teachers’ needs will vary with teacher background, experience, and grade level they teach, to name a few. Identify what educator knowledge and skills are needed to develop enough depth of knowledge to adjust current practices to fit the context of the classroom and to implement new practices and policies. Allow teachers to experience and build their own learning.

To initiate a positive context for the program, incorporate extended time for study, engage educators in collective and active participation, and emphasize reform-oriented activities, such as study groups and mentoring instead of a traditional “workshop”-type activity, which tends to be more passive in nature (Royce, 2010; Zhang et al., 2015). Provide and support opportunities for regular and specific feedback to participating teachers on the results of their efforts, based on trusted measures of student learning (Guskey, T., 2014). Time to reflect on practice, engage in collaboration and coaching with colleagues, and implement necessary changes or corrections to enhance student performance allows teachers to deepen subject matter knowledge and knowledge of students’ ideas and misconceptions in order to implement what they learned into their classroom practice (Royce, 2010).

Online options may be more convenient than in-person PD, not requiring travel or substitutes in the classroom, and they are often less expensive. Considering teachers’ own learning goals and styles, online PD programs can be useful for meeting teacher needs that are not part of the school year plan and for letting teachers access expertise outside of the school district. They can also be a way to allow teams of educators from schools and districts to participate in the same professional learning opportunities and continue to work together following the PD. Professional development remains best done collaboratively with supportive colleagues and facilitators. School-based collaboration and job-embedded PD are still critical and necessary where teachers are participating in online learning (Bates, Phalen, & Moran, 2016). Online PD can be good choice, but in-person PD is often a better fit (Bates et al., 2016). Regardless of format, the PD must be carefully vetted and researched, and be well-planned and delivered.

Finally, those planning and implementing PD must have a means to critically assess and evaluate the effectiveness of a PD program. This includes setting the specific goals of PD, determining which evidence will best measure achievement of those goals, and instituting a method to gather that evidence in a meaningful and scientifically defensible manner that will yield robust results about the PD for future use. Key to the success of implementing significant new elements, strategies, and approaches in classroom practice is to start small with a controlled pilot program, where possible, to evaluate the effectiveness of the program and make corrections along the way.

Because there is no “one-size-fits-all” approach to professional learning, it is important to allow for flexibility as well as time to plan and implement changes into each educator’s classroom context (Royce, 2010; Zhang et al., 2015).